| GRAND ALLIANCE | END OF THE COLD WAR | |||
| Economic | ContextAfter the end of WW2 the USSR was given the responsibility to hold free elections in eastern europe. All of the eastern countries fell for communism creating the “eastern bloc”. This was seen as an attempt of imperialism by the USA.Having ended WW2 the grand alliance now lacked a common enemy (Hitler) and therefore ideological differences started to rise → Capitalism vs Communism.The USSR was still salty the the US dropped the atomic bombs in Japan as intervention from the USSR on Japan would have allowed them to gain strategic ports after the war.Germany was divided into sectors. It is important to note that although Berlin was on the soviet side, it was divided into east and west. The Kennan long telegramIntroduced the idea that “The inherent position of communist and capitalist economic systems meant that one would destroy the other and there would be constant rivalry between the two systems” Introduced the idea of economic rivalry between both superpowers and the idea only one economic system exist at the same time. Marshall Plan (April 1947) Due to the state of european countries after WW2 the US feared that countries in europe would turn to communism, To prevent this the USA used 13.2 billion dollars in the form of economic aid to help rebuild european countries. This had to purposes:Expand the US sphere of influence on europe as those countries that accepted the loan were no partially economically dependent of the US.Prevent the expansion of communism and reintroduce capitalism on communist countries by offering the Marshall Plan’s loans to them Ex. Czechoslovakia.However the USSR didn’t allow its satellite states to accept the loans and to prevent capitalism from spreading, the USSR introduced its own counter to the Marshall plan. Comecon (Jan 1949)As a response to the Marshall Plan, the USSR developed the Molotov Plan, which led to the creation of Comecon in January 1949. It was a council set up to stimulate and control E. Europe’s economic development.It provided an alternative for the marshall plan in the case of the E. European countries. It also allowed more control over the countries of the eastern bloc. The introduction of opposing economic aid plans instead of a plan supported by both countries is a clear evidence of rivalry between the USSR and the US and can be regarded as evidence for declining relations a mayor lead up to the end of the grand alliance. The Berlin BlockadeThe Berlin blockade, considered as the first Cold War Crisis, has its creation due to economic reasons as the Soviets rejected the western powers suggestion of implementing a new currency. It was introduced in June 1948The rejection of economic reforms presented by the allies can be a factor evidencing the ongoing deterioration of relations between the members of the grand alliance. | Role of Gorbachev and Reagan | Gorbachev takes office 1985 The country is in an economic crisis → ‘We can’t go on living like this’ Introduces two key policiesPerestroika – Privatizacion and economic reform (didn’t work, made things worse)However it took away all control over resources meaning investment was reduced. On top of this the USSR dismember into small republics, the creation of private banks and the need for government subsidies caused inflation and shortages. Glasnost (openness) was the principle that every area of the regime should be open to public scrutiny. Moreover the USSR used 40% of its GDP to keep up with the US arms race. Grovachev knew that the Soviets could not match Reagan’s SDI system and wanted to abandon the arms race. The disaster at Chernobyl only heightened Gorbachev’s awareness of nuclear power and how outdated soviet nuclear technology was. Foreign Policy of Gorbachev 1985 He renewed the warsaw pactContinued to support leftist revolutions —> sandinistas in nicaraguaEnded the war in afghanistan 1989Troops reductionHad been extremely costly (deterred domestic economy) 100,000 soviet soldiers had no clear objective on afg.Soviet withdrawal damaged afghanistan politicsUnstable politics —> religious warlords obtained powerGorbachev was concerned that military expenditures were crippling USSR economy1987 gorbachev encouraged eastern europe countries to follow their own path Reagan While Reagan had strong anti- communist roots that stretched back to the earliest months of the Cold War, in his second term in office he decided to alter his aggressive stance toward the Soviet Union. Starting in 1986 the two leaders proposed reducing the nuclear arsenals of both the United States and Soviet Union. The Documents below illustrate how the leaders conducted diplomacy. Reagan was elected to power on a wave of anticommunist feeling and a belief that the US needed to reassert its power on the world stage. Reagan believed that détente had not been to the benefit of the US and therefore pursued several new policies:Defense spending was increased by 13% in 1982 and then 8% for the following two years – the largest peacetime increase in US historyNew nuclear weapons were developed, along with the stealth bomber and trident submarinesThe strategic defense Star Wars was developed – research program to set up a space based laser system to intercept soviet ballistic missiles. This had a direct impact on the MAD which had deterred each side from using nuclear weaponsThe Reagan doctrine gave assistance to anti-communist insurgents and anti-communist governments in Africa and Latin AmericaThe US deployed missile in west Europe to counter soviet missilesTrade restrictions with the USSR were imposedReagan used hostile language against USSR, calling them evil empire and the source of evil in the worlds | |
| Conferences | Casablanca conference January 1943Roosevelt wanted to ensure that he was the leader of the policies argued between Churchill and Stalin → said that Japan and Germany had to surrender unconditionally, “Unconditional Surrender”.Meeting of Roosevelt and Churchill after the defeat of the Axis powers in North Africa.The aim of this conference was to decide future strategySecond front attack over France Washington conference May 1943Discussion between Churchill and Roosevelt about invading Italy, since it could potentially dive troops that were beneficial for the invasion of France. Quebec conference August 1943More discussion about the invasion of Italy and the unconditional surrender of Mussolini.Quebec conference raised issues about the end of the warRoosevelt began to see that he had to prepare plans on how to deal with Stalin and communism Yalta, February 1945 Poland à moved 300 km to the west.Stalin promised that some Poles pro west could join the Lubin government pro soviet. The declaration of liberated Europe was signed by Stalin.Japan à Stalin promised to help the US defeat Japan à declared 2 months after the War in Europe ended in exchange for the South Sakgalin and Kuril IsalndsUnited nations à Renewed attempt at collective security agreed upon à Molotov attend the first UN meeting at San Francisco April 1945Germany à It should be de nazified + divided into four zones of occupation. Berlin also divided into 4 zones. war reparations from Germany 20 billion agreedGermany would be governed by allied control councilYALTA CONSIDERED A SUCCESS Yalta was considered a success.Between Yalta and Potsdam, Roosevelt died. Truman, who wants to be tougher with soviets, replaced Roosevelt. Atlee, member of the labor party replaced the conservative prime minister Churchill. In UK people wanted to solve internal problems, not fix Europe. The red army occupied territory in eastern Europe as far as inside Germany Potsdam, August 1945 – War in Europe over, war in Asia went on à Roosevelt dies in April… Truman replaced him, Attlee replaced Churchill MAY 1945 Germany surrendered unconditionallyGermany à Denazification/demilitarization.Potsdam protocol on Germany à Zonal division of GermanyEastern Europe à Western leaders angry that Stalin didn’t follow spirit of Declaration of Liberated Europe Liberated Europe USSR occupied Eastern Baltics, Easter Europe.US unhappy with percentages agreementTruman didn’t want eastern Europe to fall into soviet sphere of influencePoland à Truman Didn’t think Lublin government was democratic.Japan à Unconditional surrender.TRUMAN WAS INFORMED THAT THE ATOMIC BOMB TEST HAD BEEN SUCCESSFUL VIETNAM – KOREA à Proxy warsUSSR confirmed the Cairo agreement. Divide these areas then unify them (sike)POTSDAM CONSIDERED AS A FAILURE. GermanyBig Three agreed to break Germany into small states after its defeatNazi experience to be removedPolandStalin wanted a buffer stateChurchill disagreedSoviet territory was invaded 3 times as Stalin wanted to provide security from western countriesBecause of presidential elections and new Prime Ministers, UK and the US could do anything. | Economic problems in the USSR and eastern bloc | Early 1980’s → USSR apparently thrivingUSSR had a greater nuclear stockpile than the US → apparent military superiorityIncreasing number of offshore military bases (Africa and the Middle East) However, the Soviet economy was outperforming the United States in several key industrial areas, but it was doing so at enormous cost:Soviet industries were far less efficient than their American counterparts, a fact that could be attributed to the growing technological gap between the United States and the USSR (quantity does not mean quality)On top of this, the expenditure caused by the Afghanistan war dragged the economy down as the war had no end in sight. All of these problems were exacerbated by the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan, which was dragging on with no end in sight. Gorvachev takes office 1985 The country is in an economic crisis → ‘We can’t go on living like this’ Introduces two key policiesPerestroika – Privatizacion and economic reform (didn’t work, made things worse)However it took away all control over resources meaning investment was reduced. On top of this the USSR dismember into small republics, the creation of private banks and the need for government subsidies caused inflation and shortages. Glasnost (openness) was the principle that every area of the regime should be open to public scrutiny. Moreover the USSR used 40% of its GDP to keep up with the US arms race. Grovachev knew that the Soviets could not match Reagan’s SDI system and wanted to abandon the arms race. The disaster at Chernobyl only heightened Gorbachev’s awareness of nuclear power and how outdated soviet nuclear technology was. Many historians argue that it was Reagan’s actions in the early 1980s in ending détente and in stepping up the tensions in the Cold War through increased arms spending that were key for ending the Cold War. This view is known as the ‘Reagan victory school’. “Reagan adopted policies that were meant to drive the USSR up to the brink of collapse” Reagan wanted disarmament ultimately however it was the initial increase in arms expenditure that pushed the USSR into negotiations as Gorvachev had no other option as he could keep up with the arms race. This resulted in the two leaders meeting together in four summits to discuss arms control. | |
| Ideology / Rivalry | Keenan’s Long Telegram (February 1946). Keenan was a US diplomat in Moscow. Sent a telegram to US saying that USSR was insecure and wanted to expand Communism in Europe in a hostile maneuver showing imperialistic traits → the USA was strongly against imperialism (ironic)However some historians say the USSR intentions was to create a buffer zoneKeenan advocated for the US to adopt containment policy to prevent the “aggressive” expansion of communism. Huge influence on Truman Doctrine due to limited intel about soviet intentions. Iron Curtain Speech (March 1946)Issued by Churchill in the US.“Iron Curtain has fallen across Europe” → showed that the continent was divided ideologically. Truman Doctrine (March 1947). Establishment of the CIA:Organization founded to gather information on global issues that would give US advantage over the USSR. Containment policy → aid Europan countries so they don’t fall to Communism. AKA “contain” and prevent the spread.Example: Greek Civil War. Truman sent military aid to Greece to prevent the communist takeover and “preserve freedom”. Truman Doctrine renounced the isolationist policy. During Wartime Conferences it can be seen that there was cooperation within the Grand Alliance due to a common enemy. By then they had forgotten their differences. Once the enemy was defeated, the ideological perspectives of each power forbade them to keep working with each other because they were reminded of how different they were. USSR no longer needed something from the US and vice versa. For instance, the US policy in late 1940s was marked by increasing mistrust (example: CIA formation) and rivalry (example: Truman Doctrine and Keenan’s Long Telegram). As a result, the Grand Alliance deteriorated in late 1940s. Orthodox perspective: USSR responsible because expansionism is inevitable with a Marxist ideology.Stalin violated Potsdam and Yalta by forcing control over Eastern Europe. USA had to act defensively w/ Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. | Discontent (leading to revolution and protest). | Czechoslovakia and Charter 77After the Prague Spring, there were still agitations in the country.1973: a rock band with large following were banned from performing in public. 1976: while performing at a private party, they were arrested for “disturbing the peace”. Later charged with drug addiction, alcoholism, and antisocial behaviour.This motivated intellectuals like Vaclav Havel to write a manifesto demanding the release of the band’s members and calling attention to human rights violations in the country (violating Helsinki). Manifesto was called Charter 77.Whoever signed the manifesto faces consequences: exile, fired, lost their citizenship, etc. 1978: to protest against this, the Committee for the Defense of the Unjustly Persecuted was formed. But its leaders were also arrested.All of these actions → sufficient for population to echo the discontent of these intellectuals. Protests were non-violent so they can’t be accused of revolution. Havel was arrested and sentenced to 4 years of hard labour. After his release, he argued that the rapprochement with the USSR would leave Eastern Europe firmly under Soviet domination. Poland and the role of Solidarity1976: Poland was going through economic distress → strikes. When the government shut down the strikes, the Workers Defence Committee (KOR) was formed. However, KOR was also repressed. 1970s and 1980s: people were openly questioning the control of their country’s party over the government and their lives. This mirrored what was going on in the USSR. Source of low morale and criticism of communism: economic distress.1978: first non-Italian pope was elected: Pope John Paul II. He used his global influence to speak out against communist oppression of religion and national movements. MILLIONS OF PEOPLE attended his masses → sign of support for reform. He became a symbol of change. 1980: Poland facing even more economic issues → increase in food prices → even more discontent and strikes. Lech Walesa, a former electrician, led the protests. Like in Czechoslovakia, they used passive resistance. By the end of that year, the entire coastline was shut down by strikes. As a result, the government legalized the creation of independent trade unions.This is how Solidarity was born: the first labour union created in a communist country. 1981: first Congress of Solidarity was held → Lech Walesa was elected its president. 10 million Poles joined Solidarity. For months Solidarity pressured for reforms (without violence). Once, police beat some members, which led to a country-wide strike that led to paralysis of the economy of Poland. Polish government needed to take action against Solidarity. But, they decided that any repression must come from within, not Warsaw. Russia didn’t want to take actions either, unless absolutely necessary → this because they wanted to save resources + a little “break” from the Soviet invasion.-1981: new PM elected. He wanted to be tougher on Solidarity. Imposed martial law + arrested 5000 members of Solidarity.When they protested against this, the government responded with force and killed 10 people that day. 1982: non-government unions were banned again. Solidarity was disbanded. Therefore, the Polish reform movement of Solidarity marked the beginning of the end of Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe. | |
To what extent was Gorbachev responsible for bringing about the end of the Cold War?
GENERAL INTRO – CONTEXT + ARGUMENT (+ factors to support argument)
The Cold War which began in 1945 after World War Two, ended in 1991 after 46 years of tension and suspicion. It took everyone by surprise: as Martin Leffler writes, ‘The end of the cold war baffles us, no one expected it´. The key factors that triggered this unforeseen event include the attitude of Gorbachev towards arms control and Soviet relations with the West, the actions and attitude of President Reagan, the declining Soviet economy and the growth of nationalism and people power in the satellite states. However, while some historians argue that it was Reagan that was the most important factor, it seems clear that it was Gorbachev who was responsible for bringing about the end of the Cold War.
PRO-QUESTION ARGUMENT 1 – Domestic policy
Gorbachev’s internal reforms in the Soviet Union contributed to the end of the Cold War. In order to effectively carry out economic restructuring or ‘perestroika’, which was one of his key policies, Gorbachev needed to end the huge burden of expenditure on weapons. As a result, several summits took place with the USA with the focus being on reducing nuclear arms; in Reykjavik discussions even centred on getting rid of nuclear weapons completely. The dangers of nuclear power were brought home to Gorbachev by the Chernobyl incident. Gorbachev came up with the idea of `reasonable sufficiency’, that it was not necessary for the USSR to have more nuclear weapons than were necessary for self-defence. On this regard, Gorbachev’s willingness to reduce military expenditure was crucial in bringing about the end of the Cold War as rival superpowers no longer seeked for military superiority. Thus, allowing for both Soviet-American relations and Soviet economy to prosper.
PRO-QUESTION ARGUMENT 2 – Foreign policy
Gorbachev’s relations and attitude toward the USA were also vital in bringing the end of the Cold War as he presented a new approach to Cold War politics. Gorbachev was a different leader compared to Brezhnev and friendly relations were established with both Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of Britain, and Ronald Reagan. During the period 1985 to 1991. four summits were held to discuss arms The first was in November 1985 in Geneva, and the Reykjavik summit took place in October of 1986. Finally, at the Washington Summit the INF Treaty was signed which actually involved reducing the number of nuclear stockpiles. These summits were crucial in bringing the end of the Cold War as nuclear war became a distant problem and no longer a fearful indeed at the Malta Summit in the cold war was declared to be ‘buried at the bottom of the Gorbachev’s attitude towards using force against the Eastern European satellite states was also key as he was unwilling to intervene and use force in the Eastern bloc as his predecessors had done.
ANTI-QUESTION ARGUMENT 1 – Reagan
However, Reagan also played a role in bringing an end to the Cold War tension. Historians who follow the Reagan Victory School argue that it was Reagan who pushed the USSR to arms negotiations. In their (Caspar Weinberger and Richard Werle) opinion, Reagan military build-up foreclosed Soviet military operations while pushing the Soviet economy to breaking point. ‘Reagan’s critical opinion of detente as being a form of appeasing Brezhnev and allowing him to get away with Soviet actions, led him to raise tensions through aggressive anti-communist rhetoric and by introducing new nuclear weapons into Europe and developing SDI. His actions resulted in the second cold war’ which according to some historians, helped to force the Soviets to the negotiating table. However, another reason why Reagan is important for the end of the cold war is his willingness to compromise. As Michael MaGuire writes, Reagan proved willing first to moderate then abandon deeply held personal convictions about the malignant nature of communism. Reagan’s flexibility and willingness to co-operate with the Soviet Union can be seen to some extent as responsible for bringing about the end of the cold war.
ANTI-QUESTION ARGUMENT 2 – Neither
However, it could be argued that it was neither Gorbachev nor Regan that were responsible for the end of the Cold war; but rather the condition of the Soviet economy. Under Brezhnev, the economy stagnated as it struggled to keep up with the US arms race and to maintain an economic system that was centrally planned and suffered from corruption and low morale in the workforce. Between 1967 and 1980 the annual growth rate for Soviet industrial output declined from 5.2 per cent to 2 per cent. The failing Soviet economy led Gorbachev to try to restructure it by Perestroika. However, the economy could not be fixed and the process of perestroika brought about the collapse of the Soviet Union. Raymond L Garthoff argues that victory for the West came when a new generation of Soviet leaders realized how badly their system at home and their policies abroad had failed. Historians who opposed the Regan victory school argue that containment and detente were in fact crucial for ending the cold war in that they created the conditions that led to the destruction of the Soviet Union by keeping the cold war going.
ANTI-QUESTION ARGUMENT 3 – Satellite States
The last factor that played a role in bringing to the end of the Cold war was people power and the increased feelings of nationalism in the satellite states of the USSR. The deteriorating standards of living conditions, the suppression of dissent had stored up feelings of resentment. Gorbachev’s reforms and his unwillingness to apply the Brezhnev doctrine against the satellite states meant that they were able to break away from the Soviet Union in 1989 1990. Starting with Poland in 1989, and then Hungary and Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union started to fall to pieces. When the Berlin Wall was brought down by the Germans in November 1989, it was clear that the Soviet Union had lost total control of its empire and thus its power base. With the economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union, it was clear that the cold war was at an end. However, it is also clear that this collapse would not have happened in the way it did without Gorbachev’s reforms and attitudes.
CONCLUSION
In synthesis, several factors came together to bring about the end of the cold war. However, Gorbachev plays a key role in all of these factors. It was Gorbachev that initiated arms control talks which led to improved relations with the USA and the official end of the Cold War. Moreover, it was also his economic reforms which, unintentionally. contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union while his decision not to use force allowed the soviet satellite states to break away thus ensuring that the cold war was definitely ended as the USA no longer had a super power to oppose it.
SUPERPOWER RELATIONS
23. To what extent did the policy of peaceful co-existence improve superpower relations up to and including 1964?
23. “China’s relations with the USSR and the US were largely shaped by increasing mistrust and suspicion.” Discuss with reference to the period between 1947 and 1979.
23. “Ideology was the main factor that led to the emergence of superpower rivalry between 1943 and 1949.” Discuss.
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LEADERS (Effects of individual leaders → Policies, ideology)
24. Evaluate the impact of two leaders, each from a different region, on the course of the Cold War.
24. Compare and contrast the impact of two leaders, each from a different region, on the development of the Cold War.
24. “The actions of individual leaders had a significant impact on the development of the Cold War.” Discuss with reference to two leaders, each from a different region
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GRAND ALLIANCE (Breakdown and its causes)
23. To what extent did economic interests rather than ideology lead to the breakdown of the grand alliance between 1943 and 1949?
23. “Superpower rivalry in Europe and Asia between 1943 and 1949 led to the breakdown of the grand alliance.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
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END OF THE COLD WAR (Causes)
23. “Confrontation rather than reconciliation ended the Cold War.” Discuss with reference to the period from 1980 to 1991.
23. “Economic problems between 1980 and 1991 were the most significant reason for the end of the Cold War.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
23. Evaluate the impact of detente upon US-USSR relations up to the end of 1979
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NO USA / USSR (Impact on other countries)
24. Evaluate the impact of Cold War tensions on two countries (excluding the USSR and the US).
24. “The impact of Cold
War tensions was mainly economic.” Discuss with reference to two countries (excluding the USSR and the US).
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CRISIS (Causes, development and impacts on the cold war tension)
24. Discuss the impact of two Cold War crises, each from a different region, on the development of superpower tensions.
24. Compare and contrast the causes of two Cold War crises, each from a different region.
24. “Ideology was the most important cause of Cold War Crisis”. Discuss with reference to two Cold War crises, each from a different region.
| 23 | 24 |
| SUPERPOWER RELATIONS (3) | LEADERS (3) |
| GRAND ALLIANCE (2) | NO USA / USSR (2) |
| END OF THE COLD WAR (3) | CRISIS (3) |
23. To what extent did the policy of peaceful co-existence improve superpower relations up to and including 1964?
24. “The impact of Cold War tensions was mainly economic.” Discuss with reference to two countries (excluding the USSR and the US).
23. “China’s relations with the USSR and the US were largely shaped by increasing mistrust and suspicion.” Discuss with reference to the period between 1947 and 1979.
24. “The actions of individual leaders had a significant impact on the development of the Cold War.” Discuss with ref